The importance of financial intermediaries

The importance of financial intermediaries Introduction Nowadays financial intermediations play the important role in the economy. Firms and individuals can find sources to finance its new project. Also lender can invest their money in secure positions. Financial intermediations raise funds from the depositors for short term and lend them to the borrower for long term. The main job of those institutions is to provide finance through taking extra risk. So there are three parties engaged in those investments process. The lender or the depositor could lend his money on secure way and low cost. The borrower can find the finance of his project. The financial intermediation manages the process of those transactions. The question now is that why do lender and borrower need financial intermediation to manage this relationship. Why do not they do it directly without a third party? The answer of this question needs to know the main reasons why financial intermediations exist. There are three reasons explain this issue. First reason is that, the dif ferent requirement of those two parties. Second reason is the transaction cost. Finally is the asymmetric information. In this assay we will focus on the asymmetric information as a reason of the existence of the financial intermediation. Also, in this essay I will first explain the Asymmetric information, adverse selection and moral hazard. Then I will brief some empirical study about the issue of the effect of Asymmetric information to represent the importance of this issue. Also, I will explain the effect of the transaction cost because it has relation with the information cost to avoid unobserved information. Finally, I will explain the financial intermediary natural and their role in guiding the financial process. My conclusion refers to the importance of financial institutions to avoid asymmetric information. I am also touched upon the difference between the risk transferring and risk sharing and the fails of those conventional institutions in the last financial crisis. I reco mmended Islamic industry is an alternative to those convectional ones which can be able to withstand during the crisis because they works as a partner with their consumer and they share the risks with them. The impact of Asymmetric information, adverse selection, and moral hazard on the lender. It is important to the lender to have the good quality and quantity information about the borrower to be in the save side. When the information is poor that means there will be risk exist. Asymmetric information is an important concept in finance and needs to be understood. It means said Bucle (1998); the information refers to the situation where one party has more information than the other party. This is a problem with most types of transactions, financial or non financial transactions. In the Case of a financial transaction, the borrower will have more information about the Risks and return of the investment project for which funds are being borrowed and the lender do not have the same information the borrower does. So it may leads to actual conflict. Asymmetric information more affect lender, before he gives loan to the borrower and after. Adverse selection is the result of asymmetric information which means a bad selection with high risk of default. The adverse selection refers to the borrower with adverse return. Also, the second result of asymmetric information is moral hazard continued Bucle (1998). The lender will face this particular problems, in which always happened after lending. This problem is described as bad behaviour that accurse when the lender take the money from the lender and because the money is not belonged to him he will use it badly. He will use it for risky activities. As a result the lender will be at risk of losing his money. Karlan and at al (2005): investigate the moral hazard and adverse selection in credit market in South Africa. The random sample of 58000, of male and female, direct offers mail used by a larger lender in South Africa by three classes. First, offer interest rate. Second, contract interest rate which is equal or less the offer interest rate and revealed to more than 4000 borrowers that agreed to the first offer rate. Finally, a dynamic repayment with a good price on future loans for borrowers still in a good positions. These three stages supported by full information given to the lenders. The study setup distinguishes adverse selection from moral hazard impact on repayment. The result found that approximately 20% of default is because asymmetric information problems. Another empirical study of the impact of asymmetric information conducted by Gaul and at al (2008) investigate the effect of unobservable information on corporate loan market, and if the borrower gives the lender the incentive to reduce the asymmetric information effects. The study used a regression to give evidence of a positive relationship between some measure of loan borrower by lender, contract terms, negotiating loans, and the amount of non- publicly information. The study found that, moral hazard and adverse selection problems do exist in the corporate loan market. As a result of asymmetric information, adverse select, and moral hazard is the transaction cost. So what do we mean by transaction cost? Bucle (1998) counts four types of transaction costs which are as follows. Firstly, search cost, the borrower and the lender will be affected by high cost of searching for accurate information about each other to avoid risks associated to default and loss money. Also, verification costs, which mean the cost that accrues when lender tries, ensure that information he has is true. Furthermore, monitoring costs, the lender after given loan to the borrower should follow the borrower activities to make sure he will be able to make payment as agreed. Finally, enforcement costs, in case of default the lender wants to ensure that the lender can be enforced to get the money back. The importance of the financial intermediaries The financial intermediation is the entity which in a med position between two parties and manage the financial transaction between them. Commercial banks, investment banks, stock investing services, insurance providers, etc are examples of the financial intermediation. So we can imagine the importance of those entities. For example banks, it does the important role. Banks obtain funds from depositors and then lend those funds to borrowers. Also provide financial services said Fraser and et al (2001). Also individual as lender can get fixed income at cheaper cost. Also, when the lender uses the financial intermediary he wont need to bear those costs. He does not have to spend money and time for collecting information to find good borrower. Moreover, he can get his money back at any time he want it. Also he does not have to bear risks of default the borrower and other risks because the risks are borne by the bank. Always banks have information and policy system about their clients and diversify their investment in case mismatching the maturities of their assets and liabilities said Saunders (2008). Saunders and et al (2008) said because of costs of monitoring, liquidity, and price risk, as well as for some other reasons, savers often prefer to hold the financial claims issued by FIs rather than those issued by corporations. Diamond (1984) developed a model of delegate monitoring. Financial intermediary acts as monitor by promising the lender a fixed income and monitor the borrower activity to fulfil the lender the promise said Allen at al (2008). Another model developed by Boot and Thakor (1997) about delegated monitoring. They assume that, there are three kind of information. First, incomplete and unclear information about the future activity that the borrower is going to do and they suggest the solution is using financial market to obtain this information. Second the lender does not have information about the lender activity in term of invest the money in safe or risky project, and they suggest the solution by intermediary. Finally, borrower might have the chance to invest in a risky project and also they suggest the solution by intermediary said Allen at al (2008). Conclusion and recommendations: In conclusion, financial intermediaries do not exist by chance the economy has found them. As it shows above it exist because the need of the two separate parties and these parties represent the structure of the economy in any country. Borrower wants to have finance in his new project. Also lender need to be safe from asymmetric information, adverse selection of borrower and moral hazard and it is the financial intermediarys main job. To collect information about the borrower is not an easy task. It contains high cost for the small lenders which prevents him to invest his money. Also, he cannot give his money to the wrong person or firm. Financial intermediary could do this job on behalf of the investor. This job can be done by financial intermediaries in a low cost because of the large number of the customer they deal with. Also they act as specialist to this kind of financial transactions. However, financial intermediary is not always the haven. It has also risks of default, credit risk, liquidity risk, and etc. As we experience in the last financial crisis and the collapse of the biggest financial institutions around the world as a result of transferring risk. I think Islamic banks are the solution. They share risks instead of transfer them. Every party have to bear part of the risk to be able to continue. Transferring risks are not the solution, which means party will have nothing and other will have everything as a result part of the economy, will continue and the other part will collapse. Lets imagine the collapse party is the banks. So, the crisis will extend to the economy as a whole.

Comparing Beowulf with the Green Knight

When it comes to groundbreaking, classical literature, not many works can trump what Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight have done. Although similar through importance, readers would be hard pressed to discover any more similarities between the two. Beowulf is an epic poem from the Anglo-Saxon period, while Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a tale from the medieval period. The main characters of each novel, Beowulf and Sir Gawain, each endure personal struggles in the â€Å"problem of pride. In completely separate fashions, both of them lust for domination (libido dominandi) throughout each of their respective stories. Beowulf, the earliest of epic heroes, was significantly known for his bravery. With his lack of fear for death, he without a doubt was known as the greatest warrior at the time. However with great skill and the constant appraisal from fellow warriors, Beowulf becomes very boastful in his continued desire for dominance. In fact, his first words of the tale were, â€Å"When I was younger, I had great triumphs. Then news of Grendel, hard to ignore, reached me at home. Off the bat, he introduces himself as an accomplished warrior who felt it was his duty to slay the monster Grendel the minute he heard about his destruction. Beowulf revels in his decision to come over from Geatland to protect King Hrothgar and his people. He feels that this is his opportunity to come and â€Å"protect the thrown† in a God-like manner. Furthermore, in Beowulf’s quest, he completely ignores the medieval warfare’s protocol on weapons. While warriors typically use weapons in battle, Beowulf disagrees with this approach, risking his humanity while stepping outside of his human limits. He decides to fight Grendel on his own terms, and this over prideful, â€Å"superheroesque† mind frame (first interpreted as heroic) would come back to haunt Beowulf in his eventual death. As the story of Beowulf continues, Beowulf’s pride wears him down in his lust for domination. King Hrothgar, at one point, even warns a younger Beowulf to not let libido dominandi occur. Hrothgar proclaims, â€Å"He covets and resents; dishonors custom and bestows no gold; and because of good things that the Heavenly Powers gave him in the past he ignores the shape of things to come †¦ O flowers of warriors, beware of that trap. Choose, dear Beowulf, the better part, eternal rewards. Do not give way to pride. † However, Hrothgar’s advice doesn’t seem to help in Beowulf’s clash with the dragon towards the end of the tale. Beowulf was praised for his nobility when he was younger, but his aging only increased his lust for domination. He simply doesn’t care about the repercussions of his death, and how leaving them unprotected would severely impact his people. In conclusion, Beowulf recklessly battles this dragon to the death. He praises God before his death as he states, â€Å"To the everlasting Lord of all, to the King of Glory, I give thanks that I behold this treasure here in front of me, that I have been allowed to leave my people so well endowed on the day I die. † This ending, going out in a blaze of glory, was exactly what Beowulf wanted to happen. It was not exactly his fate, but his desire for glory was simply too strong, thus neglecting what should have been most important to him: the safety of his people. If he was truly a great hero, he would put the well being of others before his desire for dominance. In the case of Sir Gawain, his libido dominandi was enigmatic. Personal honor and valor seemed to be the two most important aspects of his life. Differing from Beowulf, Sir Gawain’s quest is a moral epic, and not one of physical attrition. However, Sir Gawain’s libido dominandi stems from his false humility, or in other words, his refusal to accept human failure. In the introduction of the story, the Green Knight travels over to King Arthur’s castle and demonstrates his Christmas game. At first, Arthur is asked to be put to the test, but in an act of chivalry, Sir Gawain (Arthur’s nephew/right hand man at the knight’s roundtable) steps up. He explains, â€Å"While so bold men about upon benches sit, That no host under heaven is hardier of will, Nor better brothers-in-arms where battle is joined; I am the weakest, well I know, and of wit feeblest; And the loss of my life would be least of any. † It is almost as if Sir Gawain undersells himself so much, to only further enhance his heroism. During his travels the corresponding winter season, Sir Gawain’s internal conflicts continue. He is fighting against his own demons; there is no Grendel (or any other physical monster for that matter) in this story, just a desire for moral reformation and satisfaction from others. In his stay at the Bertilak of Hautdesert’s castle, Sir Gawain’s morale is only further boosted. Bertilak states, â€Å"As long as I may live, my luck is the better that Gawain was my guest at God’s own feast! † In response, Sir Gawain quickly deflects the compliment and explains that the honor is his. Furthermore, after Gawain’s final interaction with the Green Knight, he flinches when the axe is first wielded towards his neck. This of course is a normal human reaction. But to this noble knight, it is completely unacceptable. This corresponds with his problems of Pride; Sir Gawain wears the green girdle around his arm given to him by Bertilak’s wife to constantly remind him of his wrongdoings (slightly giving into her seduction). After returning to a hero’s welcome, Sir Gawain’s false humility continues as he sulks about his minor faults and lives in shame. However, as those who surround him maintain their commemoration of him, his libido dominandi clandestinely grows. Throughout the text, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a common theme of â€Å"doubleness† is used effectively to portray the complexity of medieval life. In other words, there was never just one, blatant solution to courtly issues. In the case of chivalry, Sir Gawain was faced with social courtesy (secular) versus Christian courtesy (religious). In the case of the Green Knight, two separate images of positivity and negativity were deliberated. And in the case of the girdle, the knotted belt and open belt showcased two different connotations. During the medieval period, the policy of chivalry to the aristocracy ruled above all. It was a code of conduct developed from warrior knights. The debate between religion versus politics was significant during the â€Å"High Middle Ages† as personal morality became a big issue in 1400’s English literature. When Sir Gawain is first introduced to Sir Bertilak’s wife, â€Å"he politely approached; to the elder in homage he humbly bows; the lovelier he salutes with a light embrace. He claims a comely kiss, and courteously he speaks; they welcome him warmly, and straightaway he asks to be received as their servant, if they so desire. Honor, graciousness, and respect marked the typical knight’s introduction. However, Sir Gawain begins to question his honor when Bertilak’s wife begins her seduction tactics. Gawain is faced with the â€Å"doubleness† issue of doing what is right as a Christian versus doing what is right in knighthood. Should he deny the sexual advances because it was another man’s wife, therefore it was a sin against God, or should he accept the lady’s wishes out of honor and respect. The theme of temptation becomes the heart of this tale, as Sir Gawain’s adherence to the code of chivalry is constantly put to the test. After rejecting the first two advances, Sir Gawain begins to crack a little during the third and final bedroom scene. Bertilak’s wife changes her evasive language to a more assertive style, and her attire (moderate in earlier scenes) suddenly becomes risque and revealing. He declares, â€Å"My body is here at hand; your each wish to fulfill; your servant to command I am, and shall be still. † Gawain gives in due to the laws of chivalry, where knights are required to respect the set of laws concerning courtly love, and do whatever a damsel asks. The Green Knight also plays a huge role in continuing with the â€Å"doubleness† theme. This character is extremely difficult to interpret as some view him as a devilish figure whose only purpose is to tempt Gawain into sin, while some view him as a holistic figure whose purpose is to build Gawain into becoming an improved knight. In the Green Knight’s introduction to the Christmas party, he arrives with a holly branch and an axe. The holly branch represents peace and happiness, while the axe is supposed to represent violence and death. Furthermore, he states, â€Å"Not all, I think, for dread, but some of courteous grace let him who was their head be spokesman in that place. He immediately references God, but then counteracts that with his threats of beheading someone. To the reader, these two polar opposites begin to question what the Green Knight’s true intentions are. In addition, even the color green goes along the lines of the â€Å"doubleness† theme. During the medieval ages, the color green was conveyed as life, love, hope, and the birth chamber to some; while to others it provoked thoughts of jealousy, death, and sometimes the color of the devil. Towards the conclusion of the tale, the Green Knight’s true persona becomes revealed as he turns out to be the host, Sir Bertilak. This plays on with the theme of temptation, as this was all set up to test Sir Gawain’s honor and virtuosity. The girdle, which is the third theme of â€Å"doubleness,† contains a symbolic meaning that has been interpreted in a variety of ways. The girdle can be viewed as sexual or spiritual. Accordingly, the knotted belt of the girdle represented chastity, good faith, and virginity while on the contrary, the open belt represented sexual advances and poor faith. This girdle is very lavish, as it is made out of green silk and embroidered with gold thread (colors that link it to the Green Knight). Sir Bertilak’s wife claims that it possesses the power to keep the wearer of it away from harm. However, it is deciphered towards the end of the story that this girdle indeed has no magical properties, and was simply another experimental tactic used against Sir Gawain. While Gawain is able to resist the brunt of Bertilak’s wife’s sexual advances, he is unable to resist the powers of the girdle. When Bertilak returns home from each of his hunting trips, Gawain does not reveal the girdle and instead hides it in shame. This showcases the spiritual interpretation; his acceptance of the girdle is a sign of his faltering faith in God. After the Green Knight reveals his identity as Sir Bertilak/the host, Gawain curses the girdle for he believes it represents his cowardice. He states, â€Å"But your girdle, God love you! I gladly shall take and be pleased to possess, not for the pure gold, nor the bright belt itself, nor the beauteous pendants, nor for wealth, nor worldly state, nor workmanship fine, but a sign of excess it shall seem oftentimes when I ride in renown, and remember with shame the faults and frailty of the fresh preserve. Yet, the others celebrate him during his return from the quest. To show their support, Arthur and his people wear green, silk baldrics that appear just like Gawain’s girdle. The double interpretation of the girdle corresponds with its complex, multi-faceted symbol. This theme of â€Å"doubleness†, the constant use of temptation with more than one side, bec omes the main driving point in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

Invisible Man Tone Essay - 2131 Words

Tone Essay In the novel Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison, the author portrays distinguishable tones throughout the book with several literary devices. The main devices that Ellison most commonly utilizes are diction, imagery, details, language, and overall sentence structure or syntax. In the novel the main character or invisible man undergoes a series of dramatic events that affect the authors tone and the main characters overall outlook on his life and society. The author interweaves the devices mentioned to set a tone for the reader and purposely create a sense of feeling and emotion that the main character is experiencing at the time. The novel is introduced with a prologue where the author acquaints us with the†¦show more content†¦203) The author also uses imagery within the paint factory to portray a snooty and arrogant tone of the workers and the paint factory as a whole. White! Its the purest white that can be found. Nobody makes a paint any whiter. (pg 197) Along with the subject of the paint factory the author uses symbols as details to portray an arrogant tone. He uses symbols of the colors white and black. The optic white paint that he refers to can cover up the darkest black, therefore showing that the white population attempts to cover the black population because they are viewed as inferior. After invisible mans injury at Optic White Paints he comes into contact with Mary Rambo. Mary takes on the role as a personal savior to the main character by taking care of him and giving him a place to stay. In Marys apartment the main characters tone becomes that of solidarity. He notices that she is hom ely and takes upon a mother figure. During this point in the story invisible mans character tone becomes frantic and nervous because of his money situation. When he makes an unplanned speech as an elderly couple gets evicted, he comes into contact with Brother Jack who offers him a job of public speaking. 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The Civil War And American History - 890 Words

In American History many significant events took place that reflected religious faith of multiple Americans and has shaped the world we live in today. Throughout the 1800s, the most memorable times in America took place throughout the Civil War. Events that escalated before, during and even following the Civil War resulted in a chain of reactions from many people within that period. After analyzing the events of the Civil War, I was able to draw a connection to the actions of the soldiers, women and Black Americans and how they were consistent with Christian faith. Prior to emphasizing how Americans were consistent with Christian faith, first it is vital to know a little background information on that particular period. The Civil War was seen as a traumatic period. According to the text, the Civil War was the bloodiest in American History that ended with 618,000 killed. There are various arguments between the true causes of the war. Despite the arguments that claim slavery was not the cause, slavery did however play a major factor in each argument presented. Therefore, Slavery can be considered the major cause of war, and an issue that grew over the years. According to Degler, â€Å"slavery was clearly important as a moral issue, but also as an economic institution that divided two different, and in many ways antagonistic, societies† (Degler, 2011). The division of two societies, North and South, is what lead the war itself. The Civil War consisted of battles between theShow MoreRelatedThe Civil War On American History1206 Words   |à ‚  5 Pagescountry divided, the Civil War left a huge impact in history as it helped form what our nation is today. An inevitable conflict that was due in time to transform into a war, the Civil War was influenced by societal interests, economic changes along with political disagreements. 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Essay about VARIOLA VIRUS - 1954 Words

VARIOLA VIRUS SMALLPOX INTRODUCTION The Variola virus, which is the most virulent member of Genus Orthopoxvirus, is the causative agent of smallpox. It specifically infects humans. The primary reason for infection in humans is due to its ability to evade the host immune responses, and avoid complement activation. Over the centuries, this naturally occurring virus has spread throughout the earth, through various environments, to cause severe outbreaks. The most devastation outbreak had a case-fatality rate of 40 percent in individuals who have not been vaccinated. The Variola virus is a double-stranded DNA virus. It has two envelopes: the outer envelope is present only in the extracellular state. The outer surface or the core†¦show more content†¦An infection of the variola virus starts out with flu-like symptoms, then rashes and scabs form throughout – similar to chickenpox, eventually in fatal cases, leading to malignant diseases such as intravascular coagulation, hypotention, cardiovascular collapse or bleeding of skin and intestinal tract (IOM, 1999). HISTORY The history of the smallpox is still a mystery. It is speculated to have appeared among human population during the first agricultural settlements in northeastern Africa, around 10,000 BC (Baraquet and Domingo, 1997). Perhaps the scars, which appear on Pharaoh Ramses V’s delicately preserved mummy dating back to 1157 BC, may be the earliest signs of smallpox exposure (Ellner, 1998). It is speculated that throughout history, exposures to smallpox have been known in all parts of the world, along with the observance of gaining immunity to smallpox upon surviving an exposure. The observance of such a phenomenon throughout history, has led to healthy individuals, to be exposed on purpose in attempts to gain immunity. Inoculation of healthy individuals by placing pus or powdered scab material from an infected individual, to the nose of the intended was recorded by the Chinese as early as tenth century (Ellner, 1998). The procedure of inoculation a healthy individual with smallpox was widely used in England by 1740. Around 1765, English physicians noticed that milkmaids were immune to smallpox, as a result of being exposed to the less severeShow MoreRelatedVaccinations And Immunization : Infection Of The Variola Virus1302 Words   |  6 Pagesby an infection of the Variola Virus. This virus has two strains, both, major and minor, with the major strain resulting in a 30% mortality rate of those infected. - The Variola virus can easily transmitted from one individual to another. Directly from one person to another, direct transmission, requires prolonged face-to-face contact, with an infected individual. The variola virus can be transmitted through the spread of bodily fluids from the infected individual. The virus can be spread throughRead MoreThe Dormant Threat of Smallpox1370 Words   |  6 Pagescauses a fever and rash. The term â€Å"pox† comes from the Latin word for spotted. It also refers to the raised bumps that appear on the face and body of an infected person. Small Pox is cause by the Variola virus that appeared many years ago. There are two rudimentary patterns of small pox: Variola minor and Variola major, which is the worst and most common of the two. The earliest known death was Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses. Could it be a coincidence that the disease also originated from Eygpt? Edward JennerRead More Smallpox : Pathogenesis and Pathology Essay example1591 Words à ‚  |  7 Pageslabs in the world with smallpox. Smallpox is created from the virus Variola which inoculates itself through the skin and into the dermis or more commonly from prolonged, direct face to face contact. Smallpox incubates for as long as two weeks at which time it is multiplying in the lymph nodes and bone marrow. The virus is also able to enter the blood stream and travel through without being harmed by macrophages. The variola virus also causes monkeypox and cowpox however none of these are as badRead MoreHistory and Causes of Smallpox Essay850 Words   |  4 Pagesis caused by the Variola virus, which belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus. The members of this genus share similar genetic makeup and characteristics. Viruses belonging to this family are large and measure nearly 220-450 nm x 150-260 nm in size. DNA is the genetic material that encodes for 200 proteins, approximately, using its 200,000 base pairs. The DNA is encapsulated inside a capsid, which in turn is e nveloped by membrane proteins. Two forms of the virus cause smallpox. Variola major is the mostRead MoreThe Eradication of Smallpox Smallpox is a disease that has a very high infection rate within the1300 Words   |  6 Pagesvery high infection rate within the human population. It is a pathogen caused by the Variola virus, of which the symptoms of this are high fever, head and body aches, and sometimes vomiting. There are two forms of smallpox, Variola major and Variola minor. Variola major is the most common of the cases which involves a higher fever and more extensive rash. However there are actually four different types of the Variola major and they are: Ordinary which is 90% of the cases, Modified which is mild andRead MoreOverview of Smallpox Essay1045 Words   |  5 Pagessmallpox is considered the first germ warfare agent (Sherman, 2007). Smallpox comes from variola major virus. It is transmitted through inhalation by droplet infection (contact with contagious body fluids). Individuals can also become infected through direct contact with contaminated clothing or bedding. There are two types of smallpox. The Variola virus; major and minor. The more deadly form of the virus, Variola major, generally killed up to twenty five percent of the people infected and accountedRead MoreSmallpox, Etiology Of The Disease And Nursing Considerations970 Words   |  4 Pagescontrolled through the implementation of effective vaccination programs. Variola major or smallpox, is one of these diseases. Smallpox was once a major public health concern associated with a high mortality rate. Through a global vaccination effort, the disease is now considered irradiated. However, in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11th, there are new concerns about the possible use of the variola major virus as a weapon of biologica l warfare. This paper will review the historyRead MoreThe Impact of Bioligical Weapons on Human and their Environment695 Words   |  3 Pagesthis disease but the CDC does not recommend their routine use. Variola is the virus that cause the smallpox. Variola was an important cause of death and illness in the developing world until recent times. The last reported cases of Variola was in Somalia in 1997. Variola has a high death rate and a secondary spread. Variola can infect people for long periods of time it is very stable and once you get infected the virus multiplies in the persons respiratory tract. The blood then spreads throughRead MoreWhat is Smallpox?789 Words   |  3 Pagesand contagious until the last remaining scab separates from the body. Smallpox is a member of the orthopoxvirus family and is closely related to chickenpox, cowpox, and monkeypox virus. It has two clinical forms which is Variola major and Variola minor. Variola minor is a less common form of Variola major, and Variola major is separated into four types of small pox which are: Ordinary: The most frequent type being responsible for 90% and more cases. Modified: The mild type that occurred in previousRead MoreEssay on Cause and Effects of Smallpox1520 Words   |  7 PagesCause and Effects of Smallpox Smallpox is caused by the variola virus that emerged in human populations thousands of years ago. Smallpox is a specific, infectious, and highly contagious febrile disease known only to be transmitted by humans. It is caused by a virus from air currents which are eventually passed on from person to person. Smallpox varies from a mild form without skin manifestations to a highly fatal hemorrhagic form. Edward Jenner, an English physician, discovered a means of preventing

Battle Royal by Ralph Ellison Free Essays

In Ralph Ellison’s â€Å"Battle Royal† the the narrator who is also the protagonist is portrayed as a bright black man struggling to fit in the predominantly white society. He remains unnamed through the whole story thus symbolizing black people and what they had to go through in that time period when racism was normal. The cruel treatment he undergoes to deliver his speech is rather symbolic. We will write a custom essay sample on Battle Royal by Ralph Ellison or any similar topic only for you Order Now It represents the hardships that African Americans had to go through while fighting to be treated equally in the U.S. As the protagonist prepares to give his speech, he expects to be in a normal positive environment, like is was when he gave speech at his graduation, however, what he faces is something that he couldn’t have imagined. Instead of giving the speech, he was issued a pair of boxing gloves and forced to fight his schoolmates, who were there only for entertaining guests (276). He was taught â€Å"to overcome ’em with yeses, undermine ’em with grins, agree ’em to death and destruction, let ’em swoller you till they vomit or bust wide open† (275). He and his schoolmates are then subjected to humiliation and fear caused by the scene of a dancing naked girl (227). In the time period where the story takes place, for a black man simply looking at a whine woman with desire could result in his genitals being mutilated and himself lynched. This shows how the boys were messed with on the emotional level. Unfortunately, this was only the beginning of narrators misfortunes. Constant threats and degradation of the black people caused them be in a survival mode and to turn on each other as the narrator’s own schoolmates turned against him (280). Since the protagonist was described as bright, and was giving speeches in front of white people, it is likely that he was somewhat better off than other blacks. The narrator has to undergo humiliation to win a scholarship to achieve his dreams. This represents the African Americans who undergo humiliation in order to get ahead in life. This words show that his grandfather wanted him to find a way to fit in to the white community. How to cite Battle Royal by Ralph Ellison, Papers

Human Factors of Aviation Maintenance-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Human Factors of Aviation Maintenance. Answer: Introduction The report here discusses about the human factors of aviation maintenance. The discussion begins with the explanation of the concept of Fatigue Risk Management (FRM) where the report gives a detailed overview about FRM and the various instances where fatigue has led to poor performance of the employees. The report also gives instances of the studies performed by various federations on the fatigue level of the aviation maintenance technicians (AMT). Based on the studies the report also discusses about the various errors performed by technicians due sleep deprivation. There is also discussion on the importance of type and form of fatigue risk management through the maintenance of safety and limitation in working hours. There has been further discussion on the maintenance of staff attitudes towards the reporting and sharing of information in the context of no limitation in working hour and hence hazards and risk affecting their income in future. The report further elaborates on the limi tations and challenges of a compliance-based system and stresses on the fact that even if there were a regulated system in place it does not necessary imply that the technicians would not be fatigued once they were at work. Type and Form of Typical Fatigue Risk Management The Fatigue Risk management (FRM) is a program used for moderating the impacts created through fatigue. Conceptually, if one looks at it then FRM is a system designed to inform decisions regarding mitigating risk created through fatigue (Lerman et. al 2012). Thus, FRM contains a list of procedures and processes for maximizing alertness of the personnel and minimize performance errors that are responsible for creating hazards and risk for the crewmembers of the aircraft. Therefore, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), Civil Aviation Authority of Australia (CASA) and International Civil Aviation Organization have enforced the use of FRM to ensure better performance (Dawson, Chapman, and Thomas 2012). Thus in order to understand the importance of FRM, understanding the following instances is necessary: The mental ability of performing work related task after being awake for 16 hours is similar to having 0.05% blood alcohol concentration level. Lack of 24 hours sleep leads to mental impairment that hampers performance in a way that is similar equivalent to having 0.10% blood alcohol concentration level. Individuals with a sleep debt of 2 hours in a period of 2 weeks will have performance level similar to individual who are 16 hours awake. People working for more than 16 hours a day are more prone to accident or injury compared to people who only work for 8 hours. There was a study conducted by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) on the sleeping habits of Aviation Maintenance Technicians (AMTs) in United States between 1998 and 2000. The study found that compared to the recommended eight hours of sleep per day the technicians only got five hours and five minutes of sleep (Rangan and Van Dongen 2013). In the survey, there was some 50000 hours of sleep data collected using accelerometer for determining the length of sleep for an individual. Thus, this lack of sleep amongst the Aviation Maintenance Technicians was the reason behind the errors in their performance. However, the incident reporting service, Aviation Safety Reporting System, for mechanics, flight attendants and pilots in the United States that is under the administration of National Aeronautics and Space had some AMT reports related to fatigue which was close to 77 between the periods 1990 to 2009 (Drury 2015). Thus, a conclusion drawn from the figures states that fatigue not only led to commission errors but also omission errors. The reality of the aviation industry is that maintenance technicians get sleep of less hours then the recommended time, an average sleep debt that is twice as compared to the national average. Thus, sleep debt associated with fatigue and sleepiness is cumulative. This implies that even losing an hour of sleep every night over a period may result in conditions that might affect performance negatively (Wang and Chuang 2014). However, the most observed errors committed due to fatigue are as follows: Hinders decision making and judgment Impairs skills related to communication Decrease in attention span and ability to recall information Results in slow reaction Increases the probability of risk Therefore, it is very necessary to initiate measures to overcome the prevalence of fatigue in the aviation industry in order to avoid risk. Fatigue Risk Management ensures using a commercial software system for designing shift rosters. Various software models consider the estimated sleep of a person and variations in circadian alertness for producing a level of fatigue that result from a certain shift pattern (Cabon et.al 2012). The most commonly used models are: Fatigue Avoidance Scheduling Tool (FAST) Fatigue Audit InterDyne (FAID) Circadian Alertness Simulator( CAS) However, the limitation on duty hours is also an important factor in managing fatigue of the Aviation Maintenance Technicians (AMT). Therefore, in 2003, sleep expert professor Simon Folkard asked by the UK civil aviation authority to formulate duty hour guideline for maintenance technicians (Halford 2016). The guideline designed is as follows: A 12-hour limit on shift duration should be implemented There should not be extension of shift beyond 13 hours There should be a break of 11 hours between the shifts A work break should be implemented on every four hours basis Maintenance of Staff Attitudes to Reporting and Sharing Information Aviation maintenance technicians have to handle two kinds of pressure, one being the actual pressure and the other being the self-imposed pressure (Reason and Hobbs 2017). Actual pressure refers to the real pressure directly or indirectly imposed on the workers for completion of the task within specified time. While the self-imposed task refers to the target set of a team or individual for the completion of a task with a period that is less than the actual time offered. These pressures can however be handled through: Proper allocation of appropriate time for all task related to maintenance There must be a comprehensive pre-task briefing carried out for outlining the task priorities Ensuring both way communication for the identification and moderation of the pressure effects on behavior and performance Thus, in the aviation industry, the busiest time for technicians happens during task and shift handovers. This is because during the handovers remaining paperwork is completed in a rush and briefings prepared for the next shift (Elavarasi and Scholar). The safety and quality manager of the organization must ensure the implementation of Fatigue Risk Management (FRM) program that will enable the following: Detection of Symptoms of fatigue Identifying hazards related to fatigue Accessing the health risk and associated safety Implementing counter measures for safety Determining tools/ approaches for reducing risks related to fatigue Creating business practices based on scientific approaches for management of fatigue risk. However, the implementation of the Fatigue Risk Management must be in phases. If the FRM designed and developed in manageable phases then the aviation maintenance technicians (AMT) can spread of their workload (Arosio et.al 2014). However, various tools and resources enable the designing and implementing of FRM. The phases considered while developing the FRM includes fatigue risk assessment, fatigue mitigation, continuous improvement and evaluation of FRM and its promotion that ensures lowering fatigue related risk in aviation industry. Another important aspect of FRM is that there should be regulation on the duty period of the Aviation Maintenance Technicians that will determine the time for the end of duty for a particular batch of technicians (Marais and Robichaud 2012). The control on the duty hours will enhance the efficiency the technicians. There are certain guidelines imposed on the duty hours that are as follows: The AMT should have a shift that does not exceed a period of twelve hours There should not be an extension of overtime shift beyond sixteen hours There should be scheduled duty work that includes a break time, overtime and standby for AMT that should not have an extension of 72 hours in succession of 7 days. There should be a maximum of four work hours before the scheduled break. There should be a minimum 10 minutes break period in addition to 5 minutes of break for every hour. Thus, in total there should be maximum break of 30 minutes in a day during which must assure that the process resume only after the break (Patankar 2017). The night shifts should not be more than 6 days in a week with a total duration of 8 hours including the extra hours. However, there can be 12-hour shifts for only 4 days in a week including the overtime. The night shifts that involve a 12-hour duty along with the inclusion of overtime and break should make sure that the technicians have a minimum 9 hours of rest before reporting to the next shift. There should be normal shifts of 8 hours of duty only for 5 days a week that should allow the AMTs opportunity of a minimum amount of 9 hours of uninterrupted rest before reporting to next duty (Halford 2016.). The Challenges and Limitations of a Compliance Based System The activities related to aviation maintenance governed by a set of procedures and rules. Therefore, safety is dependent on compliance the industry maintains with the set procedures and rules. There are many instances when such procedure not followed and there is an increase in the regularity of depressing incidents. The failure to abide by instructions remained was the key reason for the errors related to maintenance. Although, procedures are a part human controlled system for aviation maintenance. Thus, all aspects for improving the reliability of procedural compliance taken care through the elimination of error sources. However, procedural compliance is a combined function of the documentation, human user, maintenance system and technical, cultural and physical maintenance of the environment. Although a compliance based system is followed it does not mean that the technicians will be fatigue free once they come to work, This is because there are a number of challenges faced when the principles of FRM is actually applied in practice. However, these challenges can be faces through a pragmatic approach (Baron 2012). Most often, cultural differences and organizational constraints poses challenge in the implementation of the FRM, as they it is not possible to address them immediately and easily. These challenges also lead to the creation of fatigue complexity and hinder the understanding of the fatigue in a scientific manner. This then turn into usability issues in the management and assessment of fatigue tools and methods. The implementation of the FRM and for it to become operational can take a time that ranges from one to two years. This may be due to the various challenges faced on the part of the organization. These challenges are as follows: (1) Initially, in order to develop a FRM, the aviation industry must have a clear understanding of the fatigue related risk so that the industry can ensure that their FRM aligned on the evidences and the risk assessed (Weiland et.al 2013). There has been discussions on the fact that most organizations have narrow insight for the fatigue risk profile and the realization that the potential of it employees are affected by fatigue. (2) There is a struggle that most organizations face in order to get permission from the senior management for utilizing and dedicating resource for proactive fatigue management and assessment. Unless there is a major fatigue related risk faced, the senior management does not recognize the importance of implementation of FRM in the aviation sector (Levy et. al 2012). (3) Lastly, when an organization does not really get the right kind of motivation from the senior management then they initiate with a safety management system instead of FRM that does not really comply with the regulations of the work time and hence the sector lack fatigue policy that actively monitors the work hours. However, the aviation industry also faces other challenges that are associated with the development and customizing the FRM according to operational needs. These however include the alignment of the policies of fatigue management with the HR department of the industry, identification of the tools that will enable facilitation of every aspect of FRM that is proactive, predictive and reactive management of fatigue (McAfee and Brynjolfsson 2012). There are also challenges faced in customizing the fatigue tools so that they become meaningful for usage while understanding the limitations of the tools. Further, the new methods may take some time to integrate with the existing safety management system (Wachter and Yorio 2014.). However, standard organizational approach followed for the new methods so that they are recognized and may have to go through numerous levels for seeking approval. The fundamental aspect that often suffers ignorance is cultural change that is required to make the FRM functional. The development and evolvement of safety culture is the result of leadership and local conditions among other numerous factors (Rodrigues and Cusick 2012). Thus, a just culture needs promotion through the fundamental changes for successful implementation of FRM. Therefore, if an organization realizes the important aspects of safety culture then it needs engineering on a day-to-day basis through operational changes (Kinnison and Siddiqui 2012). Conclusion The report ends with a discussion on the limitations and challenges of a compliance based system there by elaborating on the fact that even if there were a regulated system in place it does not necessary imply that the technicians would not be fatigued once they were at work. There has been further discussion on the maintenance of staff attitudes towards reporting and sharing information in the context that if there were no working hour limitation then they would report hazards and risk knowing it may affect their income in future. The importance of type and form of fatigue risk management through the maintenance of safety and limitation in working hours is also discusses in the report. Through the studies the report also discusses about the various errors performed by technicians due to sleep deprivation. There are instances of studies in the report performed by various federations on the fatigue level of the aviation maintenance technicians (AMT). The discussion begins with type an d form of Fatigue Risk Management (FRM) where the report gives a detailed overview about FRM and the various instances where fatigue has led to poor performance. However, the report tried to throw a light on the human factors in Aviation Maintenance. References Arosio, G., Giordani, I., Arieni, L. and Archetti, F., 2014, May. Visual support and interaction for error prevention in aircraft maintenance. In Metrology for Aerospace (MetroAeroSpace), 2014 IEEE (pp. 372-376). IEEE. Baron, R., Fatigue Risk Management in Aircraft Maintenance: An Update on a Complex Issue. Cabon, P., Deharvengt, S., Grau, J.Y., Maille, N., Berechet, I. and Mollard, R., 2012. Research and guidelines for implementing Fatigue Risk Management Systems for the French regional airlines. Accident Analysis Prevention, 45, pp.41-44. Dawson, D., Chapman, J. and Thomas, M.J., 2012. Fatigue-proofing: a new approach to reducing fatigue-related risk using the principles of error management. Sleep medicine reviews, 16(2), pp.167-175. Drury, C.G., 2015. 19. Aerospace manufacturing: past, present and future. Handbook of Manufacturing Industries in the World Economy, p.294. Elavarasi, M. and Scholar, P.G., An Organizational Study About Green Environment. Madurai Regional Campus Entrepreneurship and Management: Innovative Construction Techniques and Ecological Development. Vol. 1 Management Part 1 Editor: Prof. Dr. C. Swarnalatha, Ph. D., 41, p.68. Halford, C.D., 2016. Implementing Safety Management Systems in Aviation. Routledge. Halford, C.D., 2016. Implementing Safety Management Systems in Aviation. Routledge. Kinnison, H.A. and Siddiqui, T., 2012. Aviation maintenance management. Lerman, S.E., Eskin, E., Flower, D.J., George, E.C., Gerson, B., Hartenbaum, N., Hursh, S.R. and Moore-Ede, M., 2012. Fatigue risk management in the workplace. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 54(2), pp.231-258. Levy, J.I., Woody, M., Baek, B.H., Shankar, U. and Arunachalam, S., 2012. Current and Future Particulate?Matter?Related Mortality Risks in the United States from Aviation Emissions During Landing and Takeoff. Risk Analysis, 32(2), pp.237-249. Marais, K.B. and Robichaud, M.R., 2012. Analysis of trends in aviation maintenance risk: An empirical approach. Reliability Engineering System Safety, 106, pp.104-118. McAfee, A. and Brynjolfsson, E., 2012. Big data: the management revolution. Harvard business review, 90(10), pp.60-68. Patankar, M.S., 2017. Applied human factors in aviation maintenance. Taylor Francis. Rangan, S. and Van Dongen, H., 2013. Quantifying fatigue risk in model-based fatigue risk management. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine, 84(2), pp.155-157. Reason, J. and Hobbs, A., 2017. Managing maintenance error: a practical guide. CRC Press. Rodrigues, C.C. and Cusick, S.K., 2012. Commercial aviation safety. Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill. Wachter, J.K. and Yorio, P.L., 2014. A system of safety management practices and worker engagement for reducing and preventing accidents: An empirical and theoretical investigation. Accident Analysis Prevention, 68, pp.117-130. Wang, T.C. and Chuang, L.H., 2014. Psychological and physiological fatigue variation and fatigue factors in aircraft line maintenance crews. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 44(1), pp.107-113. Weiland, M., Nesthus, T., Compatore, C., Popkin, S., Mangie, J., Thomas, L.C. and Flynn-Evans, E., 2013, September. Aviation fatigue: issues in developing fatigue risk management systems. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting (Vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 1-5). Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.