Essay about VARIOLA VIRUS - 1954 Words

VARIOLA VIRUS SMALLPOX INTRODUCTION The Variola virus, which is the most virulent member of Genus Orthopoxvirus, is the causative agent of smallpox. It specifically infects humans. The primary reason for infection in humans is due to its ability to evade the host immune responses, and avoid complement activation. Over the centuries, this naturally occurring virus has spread throughout the earth, through various environments, to cause severe outbreaks. The most devastation outbreak had a case-fatality rate of 40 percent in individuals who have not been vaccinated. The Variola virus is a double-stranded DNA virus. It has two envelopes: the outer envelope is present only in the extracellular state. The outer surface or the core†¦show more content†¦An infection of the variola virus starts out with flu-like symptoms, then rashes and scabs form throughout – similar to chickenpox, eventually in fatal cases, leading to malignant diseases such as intravascular coagulation, hypotention, cardiovascular collapse or bleeding of skin and intestinal tract (IOM, 1999). HISTORY The history of the smallpox is still a mystery. It is speculated to have appeared among human population during the first agricultural settlements in northeastern Africa, around 10,000 BC (Baraquet and Domingo, 1997). Perhaps the scars, which appear on Pharaoh Ramses V’s delicately preserved mummy dating back to 1157 BC, may be the earliest signs of smallpox exposure (Ellner, 1998). It is speculated that throughout history, exposures to smallpox have been known in all parts of the world, along with the observance of gaining immunity to smallpox upon surviving an exposure. The observance of such a phenomenon throughout history, has led to healthy individuals, to be exposed on purpose in attempts to gain immunity. Inoculation of healthy individuals by placing pus or powdered scab material from an infected individual, to the nose of the intended was recorded by the Chinese as early as tenth century (Ellner, 1998). The procedure of inoculation a healthy individual with smallpox was widely used in England by 1740. Around 1765, English physicians noticed that milkmaids were immune to smallpox, as a result of being exposed to the less severeShow MoreRelatedVaccinations And Immunization : Infection Of The Variola Virus1302 Words   |  6 Pagesby an infection of the Variola Virus. This virus has two strains, both, major and minor, with the major strain resulting in a 30% mortality rate of those infected. - The Variola virus can easily transmitted from one individual to another. Directly from one person to another, direct transmission, requires prolonged face-to-face contact, with an infected individual. The variola virus can be transmitted through the spread of bodily fluids from the infected individual. The virus can be spread throughRead MoreThe Dormant Threat of Smallpox1370 Words   |  6 Pagescauses a fever and rash. The term â€Å"pox† comes from the Latin word for spotted. It also refers to the raised bumps that appear on the face and body of an infected person. Small Pox is cause by the Variola virus that appeared many years ago. There are two rudimentary patterns of small pox: Variola minor and Variola major, which is the worst and most common of the two. The earliest known death was Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses. Could it be a coincidence that the disease also originated from Eygpt? Edward JennerRead More Smallpox : Pathogenesis and Pathology Essay example1591 Words à ‚  |  7 Pageslabs in the world with smallpox. Smallpox is created from the virus Variola which inoculates itself through the skin and into the dermis or more commonly from prolonged, direct face to face contact. Smallpox incubates for as long as two weeks at which time it is multiplying in the lymph nodes and bone marrow. The virus is also able to enter the blood stream and travel through without being harmed by macrophages. The variola virus also causes monkeypox and cowpox however none of these are as badRead MoreHistory and Causes of Smallpox Essay850 Words   |  4 Pagesis caused by the Variola virus, which belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus. The members of this genus share similar genetic makeup and characteristics. Viruses belonging to this family are large and measure nearly 220-450 nm x 150-260 nm in size. DNA is the genetic material that encodes for 200 proteins, approximately, using its 200,000 base pairs. The DNA is encapsulated inside a capsid, which in turn is e nveloped by membrane proteins. Two forms of the virus cause smallpox. Variola major is the mostRead MoreThe Eradication of Smallpox Smallpox is a disease that has a very high infection rate within the1300 Words   |  6 Pagesvery high infection rate within the human population. It is a pathogen caused by the Variola virus, of which the symptoms of this are high fever, head and body aches, and sometimes vomiting. There are two forms of smallpox, Variola major and Variola minor. Variola major is the most common of the cases which involves a higher fever and more extensive rash. However there are actually four different types of the Variola major and they are: Ordinary which is 90% of the cases, Modified which is mild andRead MoreOverview of Smallpox Essay1045 Words   |  5 Pagessmallpox is considered the first germ warfare agent (Sherman, 2007). Smallpox comes from variola major virus. It is transmitted through inhalation by droplet infection (contact with contagious body fluids). Individuals can also become infected through direct contact with contaminated clothing or bedding. There are two types of smallpox. The Variola virus; major and minor. The more deadly form of the virus, Variola major, generally killed up to twenty five percent of the people infected and accountedRead MoreSmallpox, Etiology Of The Disease And Nursing Considerations970 Words   |  4 Pagescontrolled through the implementation of effective vaccination programs. Variola major or smallpox, is one of these diseases. Smallpox was once a major public health concern associated with a high mortality rate. Through a global vaccination effort, the disease is now considered irradiated. However, in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11th, there are new concerns about the possible use of the variola major virus as a weapon of biologica l warfare. This paper will review the historyRead MoreThe Impact of Bioligical Weapons on Human and their Environment695 Words   |  3 Pagesthis disease but the CDC does not recommend their routine use. Variola is the virus that cause the smallpox. Variola was an important cause of death and illness in the developing world until recent times. The last reported cases of Variola was in Somalia in 1997. Variola has a high death rate and a secondary spread. Variola can infect people for long periods of time it is very stable and once you get infected the virus multiplies in the persons respiratory tract. The blood then spreads throughRead MoreWhat is Smallpox?789 Words   |  3 Pagesand contagious until the last remaining scab separates from the body. Smallpox is a member of the orthopoxvirus family and is closely related to chickenpox, cowpox, and monkeypox virus. It has two clinical forms which is Variola major and Variola minor. Variola minor is a less common form of Variola major, and Variola major is separated into four types of small pox which are: Ordinary: The most frequent type being responsible for 90% and more cases. Modified: The mild type that occurred in previousRead MoreEssay on Cause and Effects of Smallpox1520 Words   |  7 PagesCause and Effects of Smallpox Smallpox is caused by the variola virus that emerged in human populations thousands of years ago. Smallpox is a specific, infectious, and highly contagious febrile disease known only to be transmitted by humans. It is caused by a virus from air currents which are eventually passed on from person to person. Smallpox varies from a mild form without skin manifestations to a highly fatal hemorrhagic form. Edward Jenner, an English physician, discovered a means of preventing

Battle Royal by Ralph Ellison Free Essays

In Ralph Ellison’s â€Å"Battle Royal† the the narrator who is also the protagonist is portrayed as a bright black man struggling to fit in the predominantly white society. He remains unnamed through the whole story thus symbolizing black people and what they had to go through in that time period when racism was normal. The cruel treatment he undergoes to deliver his speech is rather symbolic. We will write a custom essay sample on Battle Royal by Ralph Ellison or any similar topic only for you Order Now It represents the hardships that African Americans had to go through while fighting to be treated equally in the U.S. As the protagonist prepares to give his speech, he expects to be in a normal positive environment, like is was when he gave speech at his graduation, however, what he faces is something that he couldn’t have imagined. Instead of giving the speech, he was issued a pair of boxing gloves and forced to fight his schoolmates, who were there only for entertaining guests (276). He was taught â€Å"to overcome ’em with yeses, undermine ’em with grins, agree ’em to death and destruction, let ’em swoller you till they vomit or bust wide open† (275). He and his schoolmates are then subjected to humiliation and fear caused by the scene of a dancing naked girl (227). In the time period where the story takes place, for a black man simply looking at a whine woman with desire could result in his genitals being mutilated and himself lynched. This shows how the boys were messed with on the emotional level. Unfortunately, this was only the beginning of narrators misfortunes. Constant threats and degradation of the black people caused them be in a survival mode and to turn on each other as the narrator’s own schoolmates turned against him (280). Since the protagonist was described as bright, and was giving speeches in front of white people, it is likely that he was somewhat better off than other blacks. The narrator has to undergo humiliation to win a scholarship to achieve his dreams. This represents the African Americans who undergo humiliation in order to get ahead in life. This words show that his grandfather wanted him to find a way to fit in to the white community. How to cite Battle Royal by Ralph Ellison, Papers

Human Factors of Aviation Maintenance-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Human Factors of Aviation Maintenance. Answer: Introduction The report here discusses about the human factors of aviation maintenance. The discussion begins with the explanation of the concept of Fatigue Risk Management (FRM) where the report gives a detailed overview about FRM and the various instances where fatigue has led to poor performance of the employees. The report also gives instances of the studies performed by various federations on the fatigue level of the aviation maintenance technicians (AMT). Based on the studies the report also discusses about the various errors performed by technicians due sleep deprivation. There is also discussion on the importance of type and form of fatigue risk management through the maintenance of safety and limitation in working hours. There has been further discussion on the maintenance of staff attitudes towards the reporting and sharing of information in the context of no limitation in working hour and hence hazards and risk affecting their income in future. The report further elaborates on the limi tations and challenges of a compliance-based system and stresses on the fact that even if there were a regulated system in place it does not necessary imply that the technicians would not be fatigued once they were at work. Type and Form of Typical Fatigue Risk Management The Fatigue Risk management (FRM) is a program used for moderating the impacts created through fatigue. Conceptually, if one looks at it then FRM is a system designed to inform decisions regarding mitigating risk created through fatigue (Lerman et. al 2012). Thus, FRM contains a list of procedures and processes for maximizing alertness of the personnel and minimize performance errors that are responsible for creating hazards and risk for the crewmembers of the aircraft. Therefore, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), Civil Aviation Authority of Australia (CASA) and International Civil Aviation Organization have enforced the use of FRM to ensure better performance (Dawson, Chapman, and Thomas 2012). Thus in order to understand the importance of FRM, understanding the following instances is necessary: The mental ability of performing work related task after being awake for 16 hours is similar to having 0.05% blood alcohol concentration level. Lack of 24 hours sleep leads to mental impairment that hampers performance in a way that is similar equivalent to having 0.10% blood alcohol concentration level. Individuals with a sleep debt of 2 hours in a period of 2 weeks will have performance level similar to individual who are 16 hours awake. People working for more than 16 hours a day are more prone to accident or injury compared to people who only work for 8 hours. There was a study conducted by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) on the sleeping habits of Aviation Maintenance Technicians (AMTs) in United States between 1998 and 2000. The study found that compared to the recommended eight hours of sleep per day the technicians only got five hours and five minutes of sleep (Rangan and Van Dongen 2013). In the survey, there was some 50000 hours of sleep data collected using accelerometer for determining the length of sleep for an individual. Thus, this lack of sleep amongst the Aviation Maintenance Technicians was the reason behind the errors in their performance. However, the incident reporting service, Aviation Safety Reporting System, for mechanics, flight attendants and pilots in the United States that is under the administration of National Aeronautics and Space had some AMT reports related to fatigue which was close to 77 between the periods 1990 to 2009 (Drury 2015). Thus, a conclusion drawn from the figures states that fatigue not only led to commission errors but also omission errors. The reality of the aviation industry is that maintenance technicians get sleep of less hours then the recommended time, an average sleep debt that is twice as compared to the national average. Thus, sleep debt associated with fatigue and sleepiness is cumulative. This implies that even losing an hour of sleep every night over a period may result in conditions that might affect performance negatively (Wang and Chuang 2014). However, the most observed errors committed due to fatigue are as follows: Hinders decision making and judgment Impairs skills related to communication Decrease in attention span and ability to recall information Results in slow reaction Increases the probability of risk Therefore, it is very necessary to initiate measures to overcome the prevalence of fatigue in the aviation industry in order to avoid risk. Fatigue Risk Management ensures using a commercial software system for designing shift rosters. Various software models consider the estimated sleep of a person and variations in circadian alertness for producing a level of fatigue that result from a certain shift pattern (Cabon et.al 2012). The most commonly used models are: Fatigue Avoidance Scheduling Tool (FAST) Fatigue Audit InterDyne (FAID) Circadian Alertness Simulator( CAS) However, the limitation on duty hours is also an important factor in managing fatigue of the Aviation Maintenance Technicians (AMT). Therefore, in 2003, sleep expert professor Simon Folkard asked by the UK civil aviation authority to formulate duty hour guideline for maintenance technicians (Halford 2016). The guideline designed is as follows: A 12-hour limit on shift duration should be implemented There should not be extension of shift beyond 13 hours There should be a break of 11 hours between the shifts A work break should be implemented on every four hours basis Maintenance of Staff Attitudes to Reporting and Sharing Information Aviation maintenance technicians have to handle two kinds of pressure, one being the actual pressure and the other being the self-imposed pressure (Reason and Hobbs 2017). Actual pressure refers to the real pressure directly or indirectly imposed on the workers for completion of the task within specified time. While the self-imposed task refers to the target set of a team or individual for the completion of a task with a period that is less than the actual time offered. These pressures can however be handled through: Proper allocation of appropriate time for all task related to maintenance There must be a comprehensive pre-task briefing carried out for outlining the task priorities Ensuring both way communication for the identification and moderation of the pressure effects on behavior and performance Thus, in the aviation industry, the busiest time for technicians happens during task and shift handovers. This is because during the handovers remaining paperwork is completed in a rush and briefings prepared for the next shift (Elavarasi and Scholar). The safety and quality manager of the organization must ensure the implementation of Fatigue Risk Management (FRM) program that will enable the following: Detection of Symptoms of fatigue Identifying hazards related to fatigue Accessing the health risk and associated safety Implementing counter measures for safety Determining tools/ approaches for reducing risks related to fatigue Creating business practices based on scientific approaches for management of fatigue risk. However, the implementation of the Fatigue Risk Management must be in phases. If the FRM designed and developed in manageable phases then the aviation maintenance technicians (AMT) can spread of their workload (Arosio et.al 2014). However, various tools and resources enable the designing and implementing of FRM. The phases considered while developing the FRM includes fatigue risk assessment, fatigue mitigation, continuous improvement and evaluation of FRM and its promotion that ensures lowering fatigue related risk in aviation industry. Another important aspect of FRM is that there should be regulation on the duty period of the Aviation Maintenance Technicians that will determine the time for the end of duty for a particular batch of technicians (Marais and Robichaud 2012). The control on the duty hours will enhance the efficiency the technicians. There are certain guidelines imposed on the duty hours that are as follows: The AMT should have a shift that does not exceed a period of twelve hours There should not be an extension of overtime shift beyond sixteen hours There should be scheduled duty work that includes a break time, overtime and standby for AMT that should not have an extension of 72 hours in succession of 7 days. There should be a maximum of four work hours before the scheduled break. There should be a minimum 10 minutes break period in addition to 5 minutes of break for every hour. Thus, in total there should be maximum break of 30 minutes in a day during which must assure that the process resume only after the break (Patankar 2017). The night shifts should not be more than 6 days in a week with a total duration of 8 hours including the extra hours. However, there can be 12-hour shifts for only 4 days in a week including the overtime. The night shifts that involve a 12-hour duty along with the inclusion of overtime and break should make sure that the technicians have a minimum 9 hours of rest before reporting to the next shift. There should be normal shifts of 8 hours of duty only for 5 days a week that should allow the AMTs opportunity of a minimum amount of 9 hours of uninterrupted rest before reporting to next duty (Halford 2016.). The Challenges and Limitations of a Compliance Based System The activities related to aviation maintenance governed by a set of procedures and rules. Therefore, safety is dependent on compliance the industry maintains with the set procedures and rules. There are many instances when such procedure not followed and there is an increase in the regularity of depressing incidents. The failure to abide by instructions remained was the key reason for the errors related to maintenance. Although, procedures are a part human controlled system for aviation maintenance. Thus, all aspects for improving the reliability of procedural compliance taken care through the elimination of error sources. However, procedural compliance is a combined function of the documentation, human user, maintenance system and technical, cultural and physical maintenance of the environment. Although a compliance based system is followed it does not mean that the technicians will be fatigue free once they come to work, This is because there are a number of challenges faced when the principles of FRM is actually applied in practice. However, these challenges can be faces through a pragmatic approach (Baron 2012). Most often, cultural differences and organizational constraints poses challenge in the implementation of the FRM, as they it is not possible to address them immediately and easily. These challenges also lead to the creation of fatigue complexity and hinder the understanding of the fatigue in a scientific manner. This then turn into usability issues in the management and assessment of fatigue tools and methods. The implementation of the FRM and for it to become operational can take a time that ranges from one to two years. This may be due to the various challenges faced on the part of the organization. These challenges are as follows: (1) Initially, in order to develop a FRM, the aviation industry must have a clear understanding of the fatigue related risk so that the industry can ensure that their FRM aligned on the evidences and the risk assessed (Weiland et.al 2013). There has been discussions on the fact that most organizations have narrow insight for the fatigue risk profile and the realization that the potential of it employees are affected by fatigue. (2) There is a struggle that most organizations face in order to get permission from the senior management for utilizing and dedicating resource for proactive fatigue management and assessment. Unless there is a major fatigue related risk faced, the senior management does not recognize the importance of implementation of FRM in the aviation sector (Levy et. al 2012). (3) Lastly, when an organization does not really get the right kind of motivation from the senior management then they initiate with a safety management system instead of FRM that does not really comply with the regulations of the work time and hence the sector lack fatigue policy that actively monitors the work hours. However, the aviation industry also faces other challenges that are associated with the development and customizing the FRM according to operational needs. These however include the alignment of the policies of fatigue management with the HR department of the industry, identification of the tools that will enable facilitation of every aspect of FRM that is proactive, predictive and reactive management of fatigue (McAfee and Brynjolfsson 2012). There are also challenges faced in customizing the fatigue tools so that they become meaningful for usage while understanding the limitations of the tools. Further, the new methods may take some time to integrate with the existing safety management system (Wachter and Yorio 2014.). However, standard organizational approach followed for the new methods so that they are recognized and may have to go through numerous levels for seeking approval. The fundamental aspect that often suffers ignorance is cultural change that is required to make the FRM functional. The development and evolvement of safety culture is the result of leadership and local conditions among other numerous factors (Rodrigues and Cusick 2012). Thus, a just culture needs promotion through the fundamental changes for successful implementation of FRM. Therefore, if an organization realizes the important aspects of safety culture then it needs engineering on a day-to-day basis through operational changes (Kinnison and Siddiqui 2012). Conclusion The report ends with a discussion on the limitations and challenges of a compliance based system there by elaborating on the fact that even if there were a regulated system in place it does not necessary imply that the technicians would not be fatigued once they were at work. There has been further discussion on the maintenance of staff attitudes towards reporting and sharing information in the context that if there were no working hour limitation then they would report hazards and risk knowing it may affect their income in future. The importance of type and form of fatigue risk management through the maintenance of safety and limitation in working hours is also discusses in the report. Through the studies the report also discusses about the various errors performed by technicians due to sleep deprivation. There are instances of studies in the report performed by various federations on the fatigue level of the aviation maintenance technicians (AMT). The discussion begins with type an d form of Fatigue Risk Management (FRM) where the report gives a detailed overview about FRM and the various instances where fatigue has led to poor performance. However, the report tried to throw a light on the human factors in Aviation Maintenance. References Arosio, G., Giordani, I., Arieni, L. and Archetti, F., 2014, May. Visual support and interaction for error prevention in aircraft maintenance. In Metrology for Aerospace (MetroAeroSpace), 2014 IEEE (pp. 372-376). IEEE. Baron, R., Fatigue Risk Management in Aircraft Maintenance: An Update on a Complex Issue. Cabon, P., Deharvengt, S., Grau, J.Y., Maille, N., Berechet, I. and Mollard, R., 2012. Research and guidelines for implementing Fatigue Risk Management Systems for the French regional airlines. Accident Analysis Prevention, 45, pp.41-44. Dawson, D., Chapman, J. and Thomas, M.J., 2012. Fatigue-proofing: a new approach to reducing fatigue-related risk using the principles of error management. Sleep medicine reviews, 16(2), pp.167-175. Drury, C.G., 2015. 19. Aerospace manufacturing: past, present and future. Handbook of Manufacturing Industries in the World Economy, p.294. Elavarasi, M. and Scholar, P.G., An Organizational Study About Green Environment. Madurai Regional Campus Entrepreneurship and Management: Innovative Construction Techniques and Ecological Development. Vol. 1 Management Part 1 Editor: Prof. Dr. C. Swarnalatha, Ph. D., 41, p.68. Halford, C.D., 2016. Implementing Safety Management Systems in Aviation. Routledge. Halford, C.D., 2016. Implementing Safety Management Systems in Aviation. Routledge. Kinnison, H.A. and Siddiqui, T., 2012. Aviation maintenance management. Lerman, S.E., Eskin, E., Flower, D.J., George, E.C., Gerson, B., Hartenbaum, N., Hursh, S.R. and Moore-Ede, M., 2012. Fatigue risk management in the workplace. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 54(2), pp.231-258. Levy, J.I., Woody, M., Baek, B.H., Shankar, U. and Arunachalam, S., 2012. Current and Future Particulate?Matter?Related Mortality Risks in the United States from Aviation Emissions During Landing and Takeoff. Risk Analysis, 32(2), pp.237-249. Marais, K.B. and Robichaud, M.R., 2012. Analysis of trends in aviation maintenance risk: An empirical approach. Reliability Engineering System Safety, 106, pp.104-118. McAfee, A. and Brynjolfsson, E., 2012. Big data: the management revolution. Harvard business review, 90(10), pp.60-68. Patankar, M.S., 2017. Applied human factors in aviation maintenance. Taylor Francis. Rangan, S. and Van Dongen, H., 2013. Quantifying fatigue risk in model-based fatigue risk management. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine, 84(2), pp.155-157. Reason, J. and Hobbs, A., 2017. Managing maintenance error: a practical guide. CRC Press. Rodrigues, C.C. and Cusick, S.K., 2012. Commercial aviation safety. Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill. Wachter, J.K. and Yorio, P.L., 2014. A system of safety management practices and worker engagement for reducing and preventing accidents: An empirical and theoretical investigation. Accident Analysis Prevention, 68, pp.117-130. Wang, T.C. and Chuang, L.H., 2014. Psychological and physiological fatigue variation and fatigue factors in aircraft line maintenance crews. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 44(1), pp.107-113. Weiland, M., Nesthus, T., Compatore, C., Popkin, S., Mangie, J., Thomas, L.C. and Flynn-Evans, E., 2013, September. Aviation fatigue: issues in developing fatigue risk management systems. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting (Vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 1-5). Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.